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[Abstract]Translation,asatoolforthecommunicationofcultures,transfersthecognitionofthesourcelanguageintothetargetlanguage,andtranslationofmetaphorhasbecameacontroversyreceivingmoreandmoreattentions.ThispaperintroducestheEnglishandtheChinesemetaphorindetails.Inthebeginning,differentdefinitionsofEnglishmetaphorarequotedfromauthorities.ThentheconstructionofEnglishmetaphorandthreebasiccomponents,thetenor,thevehicleandtheground,areintroduced,followedbythefourbasicstructurepatterns.Differentclassificationsofmetaphorareappreciatedandstudiedatthedifferentlevels.Fromtheangleofrhetoriceffect,thelivemetaphorandthedeadmetaphorareclassifiedinthefirsttype,andfromNewmark’sview,fourcategoriesareclassified,andfinallyfourcategoriescanbesortedoutaccordingtotheemergenceofmetaphor’sthreecomponents.AtthelevelofcognitionthreecategoriesareintroducedformLakoff’sclassification.ThenChinesemetaphorisanalyzedinthesameway,sothecontrastandcomparisonareapparentlymade.Basedonthat,theobstacleswhichmayexistinthetranslationofmetaphorareprobedinto,thatis,thestudyoftheoriginoftheobstacles----cultureclash,includingthedifferencesofthelivingenvironmentandhistory,traditionandcustom,classicaltalesandliteraryworks,religionandsoon.Atlast,thestandardandtheskillsofthetranslationofmetaphorarediscussed.

[Keywords]:metaphor;translation;thesourcelanguage;thetargetlanguage;cultureclash

【摘要】：翻譯是將一種文化中的語(yǔ)言所表現(xiàn)的認(rèn)知方式用目的語(yǔ)傳遞到目的語(yǔ)的文化中去，而隱喻的翻譯已經(jīng)開始成為研究翻譯方向里的重點(diǎn)和難點(diǎn)之一。本文詳細(xì)介紹英語(yǔ)隱喻和漢語(yǔ)隱喻，首先在概念上引用權(quán)威的定義和詮釋，接著從結(jié)構(gòu)特征上下手分析英語(yǔ)隱喻的基本構(gòu)成成分，即：本體、喻體、喻底。由此引出英語(yǔ)隱喻的三大基本句型。在分類上,首先從修辭效果的角度進(jìn)行論證，①將其分成活隱喻和死隱喻兩大類；②引用Mark的觀點(diǎn)分成四類進(jìn)行分析特點(diǎn)；③根據(jù)隱喻的三大成分之間的關(guān)系，隱喻又可分成四種情況。接著，從認(rèn)知層面上，總結(jié)分析Lakoff的觀點(diǎn)中有利于理解隱喻特點(diǎn)的結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻，實(shí)體隱喻，方位隱喻。接著本文對(duì)漢語(yǔ)隱喻和英語(yǔ)隱喻形作一比較，指出在語(yǔ)言上的目標(biāo)和功能作用成為英語(yǔ)隱喻和漢語(yǔ)隱喻最大的共同點(diǎn)。在此基礎(chǔ)之上，分析了在隱喻翻譯過(guò)程中會(huì)遇上的‘?dāng)r路虎’，并深入到產(chǎn)生翻譯障礙的根本原因----文化差異，包括地理和歷史，傳統(tǒng)習(xí)俗因，宗教信仰，經(jīng)典傳說(shuō)和文學(xué)作品等其它因素。最后，探述了隱喻翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和基本原則，綜合英、漢隱喻的特點(diǎn)和文化因素，討論了幾種隱喻翻譯的技巧和方法。

【關(guān)鍵詞】隱喻；翻譯；原語(yǔ)；目的語(yǔ)；文化沖突

1.Introduction

Metaphor,mentionedbyLakoffG&JohnsoninMetaphorsWeLiveBy,ispervasiveinourdailylife,happensnotonlyinhuman’slanguagebutalsoinhuman’sthinkingandbehavior.[1]P1Theutilizationofmetaphorsisveryfrequent,andpracticallyitishighlyvaluabletostudylinguisticmetaphor.Inresentyears,metaphorsintranslationarestudiedmostlyinthefieldofpoetry,literatureandrhetoric.ForthedifferencesbetweenChinese,whichisregardedasacontextuallanguage,andEnglishthathasitsadvantages,itisveryimportanttofindwaystoachievetheequivalenteffectofsourcelanguagewhentheyaretranslatedintothetargetlanguage.Therearesomeexamples.

(1)WereIinherplace,itseemstomeIshouldwishtheearthtoopenandswallowmeup.(JaneEyreChapter5)

我若是她，會(huì)恨不得立刻在地上挖個(gè)洞，鉆進(jìn)去

(2)Hedidnotwinthefirstprize;heisjustpullingyourleg.

他并沒(méi)有獲得第一名，只不過(guò)和你開個(gè)玩笑罷了.

(3)孩子是張大媽從小一把屎一把尿待弄出來(lái)的,像親生兒子一樣,孩子也把張大媽當(dāng)作親媽,冷丁一下子把娘倆拆開,孩子能受得了嗎?

Shehadnursedhimeversincehewasasmallbabyandlovedhimasherown;andthechild,too,regardedherashisownmother.Whatwouldhappentohimifhewastakenawayfromher.[2]P19

(4)每個(gè)人生活都有苦有甜.

Everylifehasitsrosesandthorns.

parisonbetweenEnglishmetaphorandChinesemetaphorwillhelptostrengthenourunderstandingoftheessenceoflanguage,andtheculturedifferenceswhichcouldbetracedbackbehindthephenomenonoflanguage,bothofwhichservetoprobeintotheartoftranslation;Therefore,inonesense,itishighlyvaluabletocombinethestudyofcomparisonandcontrastbetweenEnglishmetaphorandChinesemetaphor,theculturedifferencesandtranslationskillsintoawhole

2.Englishmetaphor

Metaphorisafigurativephenomenon,animportanttoolinlanguagecommunication;what’smore,ithasaclosedrelationshipwithmanysubjects,[3]P1suchasLiterature,Aesthetics,Sociology,Philosophy,Logicandsoon,formetaphorcanpermeateintoone’ssubjectivethinkingandconceptofaesthetic.One’spersonality,includingphilosophy,culture,standardofaestheticsandsoon,willbereflectedthroughthemetaphoroneuses.Therefore,metaphorshouldbestudiedfromamoreprofoundandhigherlevel.

2.1AuthoritativeDefinition

Variousdefinitionofmetaphorhavebeenproposedandsomeofthemarequotedbelow.

i)metaphor:(exampleofthe)useofawordorphrasetoindicatesomethingdifferentfrom(thoughtrelatedinsomewayto)theliteralmeaning,asin‘I’llmakehimeathiswords’or‘shehasaheartofstone’.(OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionthefourthedition)

ii)metaphor:awayofdescribingsomethingbycomparingittosomethingelsethathassimilarqualities,withoutusingthewords‘like’or‘a(chǎn)s’,‘thesunshineofhersimile’isametaphor.(LongmanDictionaryofContemporary1995)

iii)metaphor:隱喻(一種修辭手段如drowninginmoney,foodforthought之類).(TheEnglish-ChineseDictionary1993)

iv)“Bymetaphor.Imeananyfigurativeexpression:thetransferredsenseofaphysicalword;thepersonificationofanabstraction;theapplicationofawordorcollocationtowhatdoesnotliterallydenote,i.e,todescribeonethingintermsofanother”.PeterNewMark[4]P123

v)metaphor:afigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparison,inwhichawordorphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedofonethingisappliedtoanother.(Web’sNowWorldDictionary)

2.2StructureinEnglishmetaphor

MetaphorcomesfromtheancientGreecewords‘meta’and‘pherein’‘meta’means‘a(chǎn)cross’,‘pherein’means‘change’;Thereforethebasicfunctionofmetaphoristotransformsomethingfromoneplacetoanother.[5]P1Fromsemanticview,therearethreebasicfactorscomposingametaphors:thetenor,thevehicle,theground,notallofwhichneedtobepresentedinametaphor,thatis,someofthemmaybehidden.Therefore,itisveryimportanttodistinguishthreefactorsfromeachotherwhenfacingametaphor.

(5)Alltheworldisastage,andallthemenandwomenaremerelyplayers.(Shakespere)

(6)Ihaveseenthemermaidsridingseawardsonthewave.(T.S.Eliot)

Inexample(1)‘stage’isthevehicle,itsliteralmeaningistheraisedflooronwhichplaysareperformedinatheatrewhichexitinourreallife,while‘world’isthetenor,andthegroundofthismetaphoristhatbotharefullofillusionandabsurdity.In(6)‘riding’isthevehicle,whichliterallymeansanactiontotravellongcontrollingandsittingonahorse,andthegroundisthesituationthatthemermaidsfloatingonthewaveslightly.However,notallvehiclesandtenorsinmetaphorsrefertotherealityinourlifejustasexample(5)and(6)do,theymayrefertotheabstractconceptimpliedinthecontext,andalsotheymayrefertosomekindsofqualityorconditionqualities.Therearesomeexamples.

(7)Thetreeoflibertymustberefreshedfromtimetotimewiththebloodofpatriotsandtyrants.Itisitsnaturalmanure.(TomasJefferson)

(8)Somebooksaretobetasted,othersswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested.

(9)Hisreplywassmooth.

In(7)thevehicle,‘liberty’,referstoanabstractiveconcept,whichthetenor,‘tree’isamaterialobject,andthegroundimpliesthatlibertycannotbeachievedordefeatedwithouttheshadingofthebloodofboththedefendersandoppressorsofthelibertyinaviolentstruggle.Ontheotherhand,blood(manure)nurturesliberty.Wordsinexample(8)as‘tasted’,‘swallowed’,‘chewed’,‘digested’literallymeansdifferentwaysofeatingfoods,whicharethevehicle,andthetenoris‘readingbooks’,soobviouslythegroundistheconditionthatbookscouldbereadinvariouswaysasfoodscouldbeeatenindifferentmethod.‘smooth’inexample(9)meanshaveanevensurfacewithoutpoints,lumps,pump;notrough;whichisthevehicle,andthetenoris‘reply’.Sothegroundisthatherreplyistactfulandshrewdjustasthesamesatisfactorycharacterorconditionofsmooth.

Fromsyntacticview,theapplicationofmetaphorisalwaysflexibleandmultiple,forinthesentencestructure,thevehiclemaybeimpliedinthesubject,thepredicate,theobject,thepredicative,theattributeortheadverbialmodifier;What’smore,thevehiclecanbeasingleword,aphrase,asentence,orevenaparagraph.However,threebasicstructurepatternsarecommonlyusedinEnglishmetaphor.

PatternI:thetenorandthevehicleareconnectedbythewordssuchas:be,become,turninto,ect.,andthevehiclemostlyactsasthepredicative.

(10)Jane’sUncleisanoldfox,uptoallkindsofevils.

(11)Hollywood,California,wasthefilmcapital,amagnetforthetalented,thegreedy,thebeautiful,thehopefulandtheweird.

(12)Afterthatlongtalk,Jimbecamethesuninherheart.

Inexample(10)(11)(12),thetenorsarerespectively‘Jane’sUncle’,‘Hollywood’,‘Jim’,thevehicle,‘a(chǎn)noldfox’,‘a(chǎn)magnet’,‘thesun’,whicharethepredicativeinthesentences.Thispatternisthemostbasictype.

PatternII:thepreposition‘of’isusedtoconnectthetenorandthevehicle,indicatingtheappositiverelationship,suchas,

(13)Mirageisthebloomorblightofallmen’shappiness.

(14)Butinacountrywherericefarmershavespentnearly50yearsinacomfortablecocoonofgovernmentprotection.

Intheexample(14)(15)themetaphorisinaphraseconsistingofthetenorsandthevehicleandthepreposition‘of’.Ontheotherhand,thevehicleandthetenoraretheappositive,thatis,‘happinessisthebloomorblight;governmentprotectionisacomfortablecocoon’.

PattenIII:verbsandadjectivesareappliedtotransferthemetaphor,thatis,wordsusedtodescribethespecialqualityofonethingareadoptedtodescribetheotherthingtowhichthespecialqualityaretransferred.Therearestillmanycasesinthispattern.

(15)Fromtheburninglookinhiseye,Iknewhewasangrywithme.

(16)Toby’sfearshadevaporated.

Theword‘burning’actuallyisusedtodescribethestateofthefire,whileinexample(15)itistransfertodescribe‘look’.Readercouldimmediatelyexperiencesuchsituation.‘evaporate’isaVerbwhichexpressestheparticularqualityofthegas,whileitisusedinthecase(16),theabstractiveconcept‘fear’aretransferredtoaconcreteimagelikesthegas.Thispatternisgreatlyusedinthepressandtheliteratureasrhetoricdevicestostrengthentheauthor’sopinionandtoimpressreadersdeeply.

2.3ThecategoriesofEnglishmetaphor

SincethestudyonmetaphorcanbetracedbacktoAristotle,thefirstonewhostudiedmetaphorssystematically.Therehasbeenahistoryofmorethantwothousandyearsstudyonmetaphor,uptillnownumerouspeoplemaketheirgreateffortstoresearchonmetaphorfromvariousangles;therefore,metaphorcanbeclassifiedinmanywaysaccordingtotheanglesitwasstudiedfrom.

2.3.1Classificationsattherhetoriclevel

I)Thedeadmetaphorandthelivemetaphor

Fromitsrhetoriceffect,metaphorcanbesortedintotwocategories:oneisthegenuinemetaphororthelivemetaphor,andtheotheristhetritemetaphorordeadmetaphor.Asweknow,thebasicfunctionofmetaphormentionedbeforeistotransferaspecialqualityfromonethingtotheothertomakemuchmoreconcrete,impressive,profoundimages.Howeverthosewhichwereusedfromtimetotimewithitsrhetoriceffectdeclininggraduallytozerowouldberegardedasthecommonexpression,meltingintothelanguage,andthentheywouldbecomeout-of-dateexpressions,whichiswhatwecalledthedeadmetaphor,suchas‘thebonnetofacar’,‘a(chǎn)coatofpain’,‘theteethofasaw’,‘theappleofone’seyes’,‘raincatsanddogs’.Ontheotherhand,thelivemetaphorreferstothosewithfreshnessandoriginalityandeffect.However,thedisadvantageofthiskindofclassificationisthatitistoovagueanddifficulttodefinetheboundarybetweenthelivemetaphorandthedeadmetaphor.Forexampleitishardtodecidetosort‘theheartofChina,Beijing’intothedeadmetaphororthelivemetaphor.

II)PeterNewmark’sclassification

FromPeterNewmark’sviewATextbookofTranslation,‘Ihavesuggestedelsewherethattherearefourtypesofmetaphor:fossilized,stock,recentlycreatedandoriginal’.[6]P46

Fromthebeginning,thefossilized,thenameitselfisametaphor.Itliterallymeanstobecomeafossil;actuallyitmeansthetrite,our-of-date,merelyused.Inasense,itisjustthesameasthedeadmetaphorinthefirstclassification.Take‘raincastsanddogs’asanexample.Nowadaysthosewhousedthismetaphorareregardedasthepeoplewholiveinthegenerationbeforethegrandfather.Thestockreferstothemetaphorsthathavebeentakeninthedictionariesfortheusageofmetaphoricalmeaningsandarestillfrequentlyusedindailylife.Herearesomeexamplesofthestockaboutthemetaphoricalusageoftheword‘flood’.

(17)Shewasinafloodoftears.

(18)Thecorridorswerefloodedwithgirls.

(19)Strawberriesfloodedthemarketandpricesdroppeddown

(20)Beerfloodedfromtheglass

Therearetherecentlycreatedmetaphorswhichhavenotyetbeenadoptedinthedictionarybutcanbeacceptedthecommonpeoplewithafeelingofrefreshness.InHamiton’sRescueofANewborntherearesentences[7]P47asfollows.

(21)Ifocusedonasmallblobinthemudamidthecolumnsoflegsandtrunks.

(22)Isuddenlycameuponawalloffeelingelephants.

(23)…grabbedtheirlostbabyandtuggedhergentlyintoastockadeoflegs

Intheabovethreesentences,‘columns’and‘wall’,‘stockade’,havedoublefunctions.Theyfunctionasthemeasurewordswiththemetaphoricalmeanings,whichhasnotyetbeenadoptedinanydictionary.However,threemetaphorshaveacommoncharacteristic--theybelongtothestructurePatternII(thepreposition‘of’linksbetweenthetenorandthevehiclewhichhasbeenrecordedinthedictionary,suchas‘a(chǎn)handofbananas’).

Thelastone,theoriginalareregardedastheproductfromtheinspiredthoughtofthemenfullofwitsandknowledge,andcanhardlybeseenbefore,letalonghavebeenrecordedindictionary.APromiseofSpringbyAmericanmodernwriterJeff.Rennikebeginsinthisway:

(24)Nothing,notracksbutmyownarestitchedintothedustingoffreshsnow,whiteasbirchbark,thatfellduringthenight,noflitteringshadowsinthetrees,notasilverofbirdsongintheair.[8]P47

Theword‘stitch’belongstothosethatarerarelyusedinEnglish,anditsmostimpressiveusageisintheidiom‘Astitchintimesavenight’.WhilefloatedoutofthepenofJeffRennike,itwasshiningwiththebeautyoftheoriginalmetaphor.

Insomesenses,PeterNewmark’sclassification,thefossilized,thestock,therecentlycreated,theoriginalcanbeseentobethesmallbranchesderivingfromthecategoriesofthedeadmetaphorandthelivemetaphor.

III)Classificationaccordingtotheemergenceofthetenor,thevehicle,andtheground

Accordingtothethreebasiccomponentsinmetaphorstructure,fourcategoriescouldbesortedout.

Thefirsttypeisboththetenorandthevehicleemergeinthemetaphor,suchas,

(25)Ifthefatherlardissound,mypersonaltroublesareonlyafleabite.

Thistypeisthemostcommonone,forthegroundofmetaphoriseasytounderstand.FactuallyPattenImentionedabovebelongstothistype.

Secondtypeisthemetaphorinwhichthetenorisimplied,suchas,

(26)Investmentsinrestructuringcompaniesinvolvesubstantialrisks,anddecipheringthedetailsofacompany’sfinancesandplansforre-emergenceisakintopenetratingalegaljungle.

Thethirdtypeisthemetaphorsinwhichthevehicleisimplied,andsometimesthegroundisalsoimplied,leavingthetenoralone.ThiscategorytogetherwiththesecondtypeconstructthePattenⅢinmetaphorstructure.Therearelotsoftypicalexamplessuchas,

(27)Shewishedshecouldstoptimeandfreezethisdaysothatitwouldneverend.

Moreover,example(8)and(9)belongtothiscategories.

Thelasttypeisthatthetenor,thevehicleandthegroundallemergeinthemetaphor,whicharecommontosee.Thereisatypicalexample.

(28)Mylifeisonelongcurve,fullofturningpoints.

Obviously‘mylife’isthetenor,‘curve’isthevehicle,andthesharedcommonis‘fullofturningpoints’,whichistheground.

2.3.2Classificationatthecognitivelevel

FromLakoff’sviewinMetaphorsWeLiveBy,metaphorsareclassifiedaccordingtodifferentconceptsaboutmetaphors.Onlythreeofthemwillbementionedfortheyhelpsthecognitionofmetaphor:structuralmetaphor,ontologicalmetaphorandorientationalmetaphor.[9]P96

Thestructuralmetaphorreferstometaphorsinwhichoneconceptwasadoptedtoillustrateorcomposetheotherconcept.What’smore,therearetwocomponentsandtwoconditionsthatareessentialtocomposeastructuremetaphor.Thetenorandthevehiclearethetwocomponentsthatmustbetwodifferentconcepts,whichsatisfiesthefirstcondition.Thesecondconditionrequiresthatthetwounlikeconceptsshouldhavesomethingincommonwhichthestructuralmetaphoradoptsfromthevehicletoillustrateandcomprehendtheconceptofthetenor.Forexample,

(29)Angerisheat→a)Trytosimmerdown

b)Sheisstewing

c)Tomwasreadingtheboilingpoint

(30)Angerisfree→a)Shewasburningwithwrath

b)Thatcausedmetobreathefire

Actually,inexample(29)a)b)c)arebasingon‘Angerisheat’andinexample(30)a)b)on‘Angerisfree’.Wordslike‘simmer’’stew’donothaveanythingincommonwith‘Anger’fromsemanticview.However,themetaphoricalthinkingandthelanguageabilitylinkthemtogether.Experienceteachesusthatwhenonewasinanger,thebodytemperatureandthebloodpressureturnup,themodeoffidgetandanxiousandotherphysiologicalreactionswillbeshown,whichwereassociatedwiththephenomenonandthestatewhenthefluidwasheatedtoboiling.Asaresult,manymetaphoricalexpressionscomeintothepresent,suchas‘Heblewup’,‘Thatreallysetmeoff’.

Theontologicalmetaphorisanotherevidencetoshowthatmetaphorisnotonlyaphenomenonoflanguagebutalsoameansofthinkingandbehavior,whichispervasiveinourdailylife.Thevehicleinontologicalmetaphoralwaysreferstothosefamiliarthingsorobjectsinourworld,whichcanbeseenandtouchedeasily,sowecanknowitsfunctionandqualitiesatthefirstsight,thenitcontributestothecomprehensionandcognitionofthetenorwhichareregardedasnon-materialorsupernaturalexperience.Takethefollowingsentenceasanexample.

(31)Argumentsarebuildings

Obviously,buildingsarethemostfamiliarthingthatweseeandhavedirectcontactwitheveryday,sothattheirspecialqualitiesareknowntoeveryone,suchastheappearance,thefoundation,thethicknessthepossibilityofconstruction,repairment,destroy,collapseandsoon.Therefore,Argumentsiscomparedtobuildings,implyingthatthenecessityofthefirmfoundationofthesisandtheperfectwayforargument.Anditwill,otherwise,bedefeated.Basedonthisontologicalmetaphor,therearemanyexpressionsasfollows.

(32)a)Weneedsomefactsortheargumentwillfailapart

b)Weneedtoconstructastrongargumentforthat.

c)Thisisanargument,anditneedsmorefoundation.

d)Ifyoudon’tsupportyourargumentwithsolidfactsthewholethingwillcollapse.

Theorientationalmetaphors,alsocalledthespatializationmetaphor,meansmetaphorsrelatedtothespatializationororientation(suchasup-down,in-out,front-back,left-rightect.)whichareusedtoillustrateordescribetheobjectofthetenor,suchas,

(33)Happyisup,sadisdown

(34)I’mfeelingup/down

(35)Myspiritsrose

(36)Youareinhighspirits

(37)Heisreallylowthesedays

Thespecialtyoftheontologicalmetaphorsisthattheyarenotusedinarbitrarywaybutinafixedwayaccordingtopeople’sexperience.

Differentwaysofclassificationhelptoanalyzingametaphorfromvariousangles,sothatourcomprehensionwouldbedeepandimpressivewhenwefaciewithit,whichservesalotduringthetranslation

parisonandcontrastbetweenEnglishmetaphorandChinesemetaphor

Metaphor,inChineseisalwaysnamed‘隱喻’or‘暗喻’.It’sbettertodistinguishmetaphorand‘隱喻’fromeachother.

3.1AuthoritativeDefinitionAboutChineseMetaphor

i)隱喻：比喻的一種不用“如”、“像”、“似”、“好像”等比喻詞，而用“是”、“成”、“就成為”、“變?yōu)椤钡仍~，把某事物比擬成和它有相似關(guān)系的另一種事物，如：“少年兒童是祖國(guó)的花朵”,“荷葉成了一把把撐開的小傘”也叫“暗喻”。（《現(xiàn)代漢語(yǔ)詞典》1997修訂本）

ii)隱喻：比喻的一種，本體和喻體的關(guān)系，比之隱喻更為密切，明喻在形式上只是相類的關(guān)系，隱喻在形式上卻是相和的關(guān)系，本體和喻體兩個(gè)成分之間一般要用“是”、“也”等比喻詞，如“兒童是祖國(guó)的花朵”。（《辭?！?1980)）

FromtheillustrationfromChinesedictionary,obviouslyisonlyakindoffiguresofspeechinChineserhetoric.

However,EnglishmetaphorcoversmuchmorefieldsthanChinesemetaphor.Thefollowingshowsthecomparisonbetweenthem.

Metaphor暗喻

1.acharacteristicofhumanthinkingandlanguage1.***

2.deadmetaphor:表面不是,實(shí)際是2.***

3.activemetaphor:一種修辭格3.一種修辭格

[10]P124

3.2ThestructureandclassificationofChinesemetaphor

Thestructureof‘隱喻’issaidtobeamode“X”是“Y”.Moreover,ithasnotyetbeenclassifiedintocategoriesinitsnarrowsenseinChinese,whichsupporttheviewofunequalrelationshipbetweenEnglishmetaphorand隱喻.However,itdoesn’tmeanthatChineseisnotametaphoricallanguage.Eventually,ChinesepeopleusemetaphorsexcellentlyasEnglishpeopledo,forexamples‘閑時(shí)不燒香，臨時(shí)抱佛腳’,‘狗嘴里吐不出象牙’.

ThedifferenceisthatvariouskindsoffiguresofspeechinChineseareabsorbedtoachievethemetaphoricaleffect,suchas借喻,縮喻ect..ThereareexamplesinChinesemetaphor,

(38)敵人夾著自己的尾巴逃跑了。（擬喻）

(39)我騎著思想的野馬奔馳到很遠(yuǎn)很遠(yuǎn)的地方，然后，才收住了韁繩，緩步回到眼前燦爛的現(xiàn)實(shí)中。（縮喻）

(40)天下烏鴉一般黑。（借喻）

3.3SimilaritiesbetweenEnglishandChinesemetaphor

ThemostimportantsimilaritythatEnglishmetaphorandChinesemetaphorbarewitheachotheristoachievetheeffectivefunctionofmetaphororauthor’sintention.Fromrhetoricangle,bothEnglishandChinesemetaphorshavethreemainfeatures:descriptive,illuminativeandillustrative,[11]P168ascanbeseenfromthefollowingexamples.

3.3.1Descriptive

(41)Thehallwaywaszebra—stripedwithdarknessandmoonlight.(Adescriptionofthealternatedbandsoflightandshadeinthehall,likeazebra’sstripes)

(42)荷葉成了一把把撐開的小傘。

3.3.2Illuminative

Example(7)—Englishand(4)—Chinesearethetypicalexamplesandhereareanothertwo

(43)

Theasolider,

Fullofstrangeoaths,andbeardedlikethepard,

Jealousinhonour,suddenandquickinquarrel

Seekingthebubblereputation

Eveninthecannon’smouth.(Shakespear:Asyoulikeit)

(Bubblehereimpliesthatthepursuitofreputationisvisionaryandasingofvanity)

(44)人生必需的知識(shí)就是引人向光明方向的明燈.()

3.3.3Illustrative

(45)Learningisclimbingupamountain.

Thequestion‘Howtoconstructaneffectivemetaphor’leadstosomepropertiesrequiredinbothEnglishandChinesemetaphors.Firstly,refressnessandoriginality.metaphorslike‘hewasalioninthebattle’,‘兒童是祖國(guó)的花朵’aretriteandstale.Thoseout-of-dateexpressionssometimeswouldspoilthespeechorwriting.Secondly,aptness.Ametaphorisaptandappropriateifthecomparisonimpliedheightenseffectorenhancesthesubject.Inthesentence‘herbeautifullonghairwaspitch-black’,theassociationoftheblacknessofthebeautifulhairwithpitchisinappropriate.Thirdly,consistencybecomesrelevantandimportantwhenweareusingtwoormoremetaphorstoillustratethesamesubject.Themetaphorsareconsistentiftheyproduceimagesrelatedtoandsupportingeachotherandarenotmixedanddiscordant.Mixedmetaphors,whichcanproduceveryamusingandillogicalimagery,shouldbestrictlyavoided,suchas‘Iskinoverthebooktotastethetoneofit’(tonecannotbetasted).Ontheotherhand,ametaphorbothinEnglishandChinese,tobeeffective,shouldbeterseinwordsandprofoundinimplication,abundantinrefreshnessandhumor,vividinassociationandimaginary.

4.Translationofmetaphors

4.1Onthestandardoftranslation

Inthefieldoftranslation,thestandardoftranslationhasbeenafiercecontroversy,includingNida’sformalcorrespondencevs.FunctionalEquivalence,Newmark’municationtranslation,literaltranslationvs.freetranslation,formvs.content,source-orientedvs.target-oriented,author-centeredvs.reader-centered,thepurposeoftheauthorvs.thepurposeofthetranslationandsoon;[12]P5Therefore,itisimpossibletodefineastandardforthetranslationofallmetaphors.Metaphorrevealstheaestheticsoflanguage;what’smore,itreflectsthespeakerorwriter’seducation,experiences,observation,conceptiontowardstheworldect.,soitisveryimportanttokeepthemetaphoricalmeaningandtheimagesbyusinganyskillsoftranslation,thatis,metaphorscanbetranslatedinflexiblewaystoconveytheinformationandtheeffectofthesourcelanguage.

4.2Obstaclesinthetranslationofmetaphor

Forthedifferencesbetweenlanguages,theobstaclesintranslationsometimesmakeitverydifficultevenimpossibletoconveytheeffectofthesourcemetaphor.AsChineseisregardedcontextuallanguage,whichalwaysturnstobeobstaclesontranslationintoEnglish.Thefollowingcasesareamongthemostcommon.

(46)她就是這樣風(fēng)里來(lái)雨里去。成年累月地工作著.

Thishowshecarriesonherwork,rainorshine,alltheyearround.

A‘Scene’comesintoreaders’mind,thatisanimageofhumanbeingwalkingintherainandwind,whenreading‘風(fēng)里來(lái),雨里去’sixcharacters;However,thereisonlythefactof‘rainandshine’leftintheEnglishexpression.

(47)人言鼎沸

Manypeopletalktogetherandthenoisetheymakeislikethebubblingwaterboilinginacauldron.

Infact,mostobstaclescanbetracedbacktothecultureclash.Therefore,metaphorsarestampedwiththecultureofsociety,whichhavegreatimpactsoneveryaspectofpeople’slife.Therearefiveaspectswhichinfluencetheexpressionofmetaphorgreatlyinculture.

4.2.1Livingenvironmentandhistory

Englandisanislandnation,anditsnavigationhasbeenthemostadvancedintheworldhistory,whileChineseisacontinentalnationwithitspeoplelivingontheland.Therefore,thereismetaphor‘spendingmoneylikewater’,sharingthesamemetaphoricalmeaningwithChinesemetaphor‘揮金如土’.Asaresultofthedifferentclimates,Chinesehasasaying‘萬(wàn)事具備只欠東風(fēng)’,incontrastwith‘westwarmwind’inEnglish.Moreover,therearealotofuniquemetaphoricalexpressionsthatcomeoutastheproductofanation’sdevelopedhistory.Take‘zippergate’asanexample.Itbecameametaphoricalwordfrequentlyusedbythepress(referringtothesexualscandals)sincethenewsofthesexualrelationshipbetweenPresidentClintonandWensgi.InChinesetherearesomanytypicalexamplessuchas‘守株待兔’.

4.2.2Traditionandcustom

Traditionandcustomhavegreatinfluencesonthewayofpeople’thinking;therefore,metaphor,asaproportionoflanguage,comesoutofpeople’smind,whichhasbeenlaidwiththebrandofthecustomandtraditionoftheircountry.Differentmetaphorsaboutanimalsarethemostobviousevidence.Take‘bear’asanexample.InEnglish,bearisassociatedwiththepersonwithspecialtalents,suchas‘heisabearatmaths’.Incontrast,bearinChinesereferstothefoolmanortheignorant,suchas“瞧他那個(gè)熊樣”“笨熊”.

4.2.3Religion

Buddhismhasahistoryofmorethanonethousandyears.Asaresult,people’sconceptandattitudetowardsworldareinfluencedgreatly,andtherearenumerousmetaphorsrelatedtoBuddhism,suchas‘借花獻(xiàn)佛’,‘閑時(shí)不燒香,臨時(shí)抱佛腳’ect.However,inwesterncounties,mostpeopletaketheChristianityastheirreligion,sotherearesayingssuchas‘norespectofpersons(一視同仁)’,‘Godcomeswithleadenfeetbutstrikeswithironhands(天網(wǎng)恢恢，輸而不漏)’ect.Religionasapartofculturepenetratesintoeveryaspectofpeople’slifeincludinglanguage.

4.2.4Classicaltalesandliteraryworks

Alargesumofmetaphorsisquotedfromclassicaltalesandworks,whicharethecomponentsofthenationalspirits.Ontheotherhand,metaphor,inasense,isthereflectionoftheliterature,fairyandfolktalesect.,forexample‘Faustianspirit’comesfromtheclassicalworkFaust,inwhichtheprotagonistsoldouthissoultothedevilinordertoobtaintheknowledgeandthepower,andnow‘Faustianspirit’referstoaspirittoobtainknowledgeatanyprice.

4.3Skillsintranslationofmetaphor

FromNewmark’sview,“therearefivemethodsoftranslatingmetaphor:transferringtheimage,findinganequivalentimage,convertingthemetaphortoasimileorsenseplussimile,mostfrequentlyconvertingtheimagetosense,whichmayinvolveanalysisintoseveralcomponents,includingfigurativeandconcreteelements.”[13]P42However,inaboardsense,therewouldbeonly3waysinthetranslationofmetaphor.

4.3.1Literaltranslation

Assharingthelivingenvironment----theearth,allhumanbeingswouldhavesomethingincommon.Therefore,therewouldbesimilaritiesamongthecultureofdifferentcountries,thatis,equivalentexpressionswouldexistamongthelanguages.Onconditionthatthetenorandthevehicle,theconstructionofmetaphorinsourcelanguagehavethesameusageinthetargetlanguage,literaltranslationisthebestwaytokeepthevividimageandtheeffectofsourcemetaphor,ascanbeseeninthefollowingexamples.

(48)Duringthe1980s,anewdrugcalledcrackbegantofloodthestreet.

80年代有一種叫強(qiáng)效可卡因的在大街小巷大肆泛濫.

(49)ironhand----鐵腕

(50)丟臉----loseface；

(51)中國(guó)當(dāng)前的改革的春風(fēng)

Thespringbreezeofpresentreforminchina

Literaltranslationasexample(67)canconveythevividimagewiththespecialcultureofsourcelanguage,andatthesametime,vocabularyandnewexpressionofthetargetlanguagewouldbeexplored.

4.3.2Freetranslation

Thecultureclashresultsintheclashoflanguage.Ontheotherhand,amongthetenorandthevehicleandtheconstructionofmetaphorofsourcelanguage,notallcouldfindthesameusageintargetlanguage;therefore,equivalentimagesorconstructionsintargetlanguageshouldbefoundtoreplacethatofsourcelanguage,orthemetaphoricaleffectofsourcelanguagewouldbedecreased.Bytheway,iftheequivalentimageorconstructioncouldnotbefoundintargetlanguage,whichisverycommon,therewouldbenowaybutcompletelyfreetranslationsuchas‘人言鼎沸’inexample(63).Thereareotherexamples,

(52)熱鍋上的螞蟻

Acatonhotbricks

(53)Itwasdiamondcutdiamondwhenthetwomenmetbecausetheymorebothsosuretheirownwearswereright.

這兩個(gè)人都堅(jiān)持自己的主張正確因此他們相遇是一場(chǎng)棋逢對(duì)手的酣戰(zhàn)。

(54)Thepolicemenwhopatrolledthebigcityslumareathatsummerweresittingonavolcano.

那年夏天，在城市大貧民區(qū)巡邏的警察如同在火山口上(construction:metaphorinsourcelanguagetosimileintargetlanguage)

(55)It’sregrettablethatourappealremainedadeadletter

遺憾的是，我們當(dāng)時(shí)的呼吁石沉大海。

4.3.3Combinationofliteralandfreetranslation

Asmetaphorreflectsthecustoms,livingcondition,folktalesect.ofitsnation,compensationsareneededinthetranslationtohelptounderstandthemetaphoricalmeaningofsourceslanguage.Ontheotherhand,althoughimagesofsourcelanguagemaybefoundinthetargetlanguage,theyhavenotthemetaphoricalmeaningsofsourcelanguage.Inthatcase,combinationofliteralandfreetranslationcouldhelptoconveythemetaphoricalmeanings.Therearesomeexamples.

(56)PeopleconsiderthatwhathehadplayedonthatoccasionwasnomorethanaJudasKiss.

人們認(rèn)為他在哪種場(chǎng)合的表演不過(guò)是猶太人之吻,居心險(xiǎn)惡.

(57)掛羊頭賣狗肉.

Crywinebutonlyvinegarforsale

5.Conclusion

Translation,asatoolforthecommunicationbetweendifferentcountries,inagreatsense,dependsonnotonlytheskillsoftranslationbutalsotheunderstandingofboththelanguageandtheculture.Therefore,comparisonbetweenEnglishmetaphorandChinesemetaphortogetherwiththeculturetheyreflectserversthetranslationgreatly.

Accordingtothedefinitionsfromtheauthorities,EnglishmetaphorcoversmuchmorefieldsthanChinesemetaphor.Inthefieldoflanguage,therearethreecomponentsinEnglishmetaphor,thetenor,thevehicleandtheground,basedonwhichtherearefourbasicpatternsinEnglishmetaphorstructure.Fromtheangleofrhetoriceffect,metaphorscanbesortedintothelivemetaphorandthedeadmetaphor.AndfromtheNewmark’sview,Englishmetaphorcouldbeclassifiedintofourcategories,thefossilized,thestock,therecentlycreatedandtheoriginal.Thelastclassificationisbasedontheemergenceofthreecomponentsofmetaphor.Atthelevelofthecognitionofmetaphor,structuremetaphorandontologicalmetaphorandorientational,whicharefromLakeoff’sclassification,arehelpfulintheunderstandingofmetaphor.Incontrast,Chinesemetaphorcalled隱喻differsgreatlyinthedefinitionandstructureandclassification.However,bothEnglishandChinesemetaphorhasthesamefunctions,descriptive,illuminative,illustrative.ThecomparisonandcontrastbetweenEnglishandChinesemetaphorcanbetracedbacktothecultureclash,whichistheoriginoftheobstaclesinthetranslationofmetaphor.Literaltranslation,Freetranslation,andthecombinationofbotharethebasicmethodsintranslationofmetaphor,whichshouldbechosenproperlytosolvetheobstaclesafterthemetaphorisanalyzedexactly.

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